The United Nations Security Council and the Authorisation of Force

A meticulous study of the United Nations Security Council's authorisation of the use of force, to better understand its application in the African context.

1. Introduction
1. UN Security Council Authorisation of Force: Of Forms and Consequences
2. The UN Charter System of Collective Security and UN Security Council Authorisation of Force
2. 1. The Article 2(4) Prohibition and its Exceptions
2. 2. UN Security Council Action under Chapter VII
2. 3. UN Security Council Authorisation of Regional Enforcement Action
2. 4. The Legal Basis for UN Security Council Authorisation of Force
3. Analytical Framework of the Study
3. 1. The Need for Prior and Explicit UN Security Council Authorisation
3. 2. Objectives of Study
3. 3. Methodology
4. The Interpretation of UN Security Council Resolutions
4. 1. The Drafting and Content of UNSC Resolutions
4. 2. How should UNSC Resolutions be Interpreted?
5. Chapter Overview

2. Explicit Authorisation to UN Member States
1. Introduction
2. Explicit Authorisation during the Cold War Era
2. 1. Resolutions 83 and 84 (1950) | The Korean War
a. The wording and form of the authorisation
b. The legal basis of Resolutions 83 and 84 (1950): Between Article 42 and
Article 51
c. The legality of delegated enforcement action
2. 2. Resolution 221 (1966) | Southern Rhodesia
a. Explicit authorisation without a Chapter VII invocation
b. Support to, and contestation of, the limited nature of the authorisation
c. Conditional use of force under Resolution 221 ((1966)
d. Resolution 221's (1966) Legal Basis: Article 41 or 42?
3. Explicit Authorisation After the Cold War Era
3. 1. Resolutions 665 and 678 (1990) | The Gulf War
a. Resolution 665 (1990) and the build-up to Resolution 678 (1990)
b. Resolution 678 (1990) and 'all necessary means'
c. Legal basis of Resolution 678 (1990)
3. 2. Resolution 794 (1992) | Somalia
a. Explicit authorisation to Member States
b. UN-authorised Humanitarian Intervention
c. Parallel Authorisation and the Division of Labour between UNOSOM and
UNITAF
3. 3. Resolutions pertaining to the situation(s) in Haiti
3. 3. 1. Resolutions 875 (1993), 917 and 940 (1994)
a. Explicit Authorisation for Embargo Enforcement: Resolutions 875
(1993) and 917 (1994)
b. Resolution 940 (1994) Explicit Authorisation for the Restoration of
Democracy
3. 3. 2. Resolution 1529 (2004)
a. Explicit authorisation
3. 3. 3. Resolution 2699 (2023)
3. 4. Resolution 929 (1994) | Rwanda
a. Explicit Authorisation under Resolution 929 (1994)
b. Authorisation by Reference to a Previous Non-authorising Resolution
c. Implementation of Resolution 929 (1994)
3. 5. Resolution 1080 (1996) | Great Lakes Region
a. Explicit authorisation
3. 6. Resolutions 1101 and 1114 (1997) | Albania
a. Explicit Authorisation under 'Conditional Chapter VII Invocation'
3. 7. Resolutions 1264 and 1272 (1999) | INTERFET and UNTAET
a. Explicit Authorisation
3. 8. Resolutions 1511 and 1546 (2003) | Multinational Force in Iraq
a. Explicit Authorisation to the Multinational Force
4. 'Combined' Authorisation of Force to Multiple Entities
4. 1 Resolution on Piracy off the Somalian Coast (2008 - present)
4. 1. 1. Resolution 1816 (2008)
4. 1. 2. Resolution 1838 (2008) and Subsequent Authorising Resolutions
5. Conclusion

3. Explicit Authorisation to Regional Organisations
1. Introduction
2. Authorisation to the African Union
2. 1. Resolution 1744 (2007) | AMISOM the Somalian Coast (2008 - present)
2. 2. Resolution 2628 (2022) | ATMIS
2. 3 Resolution 1769 (2007) | UNAMID
3. Authorisation to the European Union
3. 1. Resolution 1484 (2003) | EUFOR in the DRC (Operation Artemis)
a. Operation Artemis
3. 2. Resolution 1575 (2004) | EUFOR (Operation Althea)
3. 3. Resolution 1671 (2006) | EUFOR RD Congo in DRC
3. 4. Resolution 2240 (2015) | Migrant smuggling in the Mediterranean and Operation
Sophia
a. Explicit Authorisation
b. Limitations on the use of force
c. Implementation of Resolution 2240 (2015) and Operation Sophia
4. Authorisation to the Economic Community of West African States
4. 1. Resolutions authorising force in the Ivory Coast
4. 1. 1. Resolutions 1464, 1498 (2003), 1527 and 1528 (2004)
4. 1. 2. Resolution 1975 (2011)
a. Authorisation to UNOCI and French forces
b. Authorised Regime Change?
4. 2. Resolution 1497 (2003) | ECOMIL in Liberia
a. Action under Chapter VII or VIII?
4. 3. Resolutions adopted on the situation in Mali | 2012 - present
4. 3. 1. Resolution 2085 (2012) | AFISMA
4. 3. 2. Resolution 2100 (2013) and Subsequent Authorising Resolutions |
MINUSMA and French Forces
a. UNSC Authorisation of Force in a Press Statement?
5. Combined Authorisation of Force: Resolutions Adopted on Chad and the Central African Republic
5. 1. Resolution 1778 (2007) | EU Force in Chad and the CAR
5. 2. Resolution 2127 (2013) | MISCA and French forces in the CAR
5. 3. Resolutions 2134, 2181 and 2149 (2014) | EU Operation in the CAR
a. Authorisation to MINUSCA and French Forces
6. Conclusion

4. Explicit Authorisation to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations
1. Introduction
2. Resolutions Adopted on the Former Yugoslavia, including Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo
2. 1. Resolution 770 (1992)
a. Explicit Authorisation to Member States acting through NATO
b. Concerns over UNSC oversight
2. 2. Resolutions 776 and 781 (1992)
2. 3. Resolutions 787 (1992), 820 and 816 (1993)
2. 4. Resolutions 836 (1993) and 908 (1994) | UNPROFOR
2. 5. Resolution 981 (1995) | UNCRO
2. 6. Resolution 1031 (1995) | IFOR
2. 7. Resolutions 1037 (1996) and 1120 (1997) | UNTAES
2. 8. Resolutions 1088 (1996) and Subsequent Authorising Resolutions | SFOR
2. 9. UNSC Practice on the Situation in Yugoslavia: Summary
2. 10. Resolution 1244 (1999) | Kosovo
a. Explicit Authorisation to KFOR
b. Perpetual deployment?
c. Explicit Authorisation of Force?
3. Resolutions adopted on the situation in Afghanistan
3. 1. Resolutions adopted on ISAF
3. 1. 1. Resolutions 1386 (2001), 1413 and 1444 (2002)
3. 1. 2. Resolution 1510 (2003) and Subsequent Mandate Extensions
3. 1. 3. ISAF, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Resolution 1373 (2001)
4. Resolution 1973 (2011) | NATO enforcement action in Libya
a. Explicit Authorisation and the Protection of Civilians
b. Implementation of Resolution 1973 (2012)
5. Conclusion

5. Explicit Authorisation to UN Peacekeeping Missions
1. Introduction
2. Explicit Authorisation to UN Peacekeeping Missions
2. 1. Early UN Security Council Practice: The Case of ONUC
2. 2. Explicit Authorisation to Peacekeeping Missions under Chapter VII
2. 2. 1. Resolution 1291 (2000) | MONUC
2. 2. 2. Resolution 1545 (2004) | ONUB
2. 2. 3 Resolutions 1925 (2010) and 2098 (2013) | MONUSCO
2. 2. 4. Resolution 2149 (2014) | MINUSCA
3. Explicit Authorisation: 'All necessary measures' and 'take the necessary actions/measures'
4. 'Mandated Authorisation' of Force
4. 1. Resolution 1509 (2003) | UNMIL
4. 2. Resolutions 1542 (2004) and 2350 (2017) | MINUSTAH and MINUJUSTH
4. 3. The Nature of Mandated Authorisation
5. Conclusion

6. The (In)admissibility of Implicit UN Security Council Authorisation
1. Introduction
2. The Nature of Implicit Authorisation
3. The Incompatibility and Inadmissibility of Implicit Authorisation
4. Alleged Practice of Implicit Authorisation
4. 1. Implicit authorisation on the situation in Iraq
4. 1. 1. Resolution 688 (1991) | Safe Havens and No-fly Zones in Iraq
4. 1. 2. Resolutions 1154 and 1205 (1998) | The Birth of 'Revived
Authorisation'
4. 2. Resolutions 1160, 1199 and 1203 (1998) | NATO campaign in Yugoslavia
4. 3. Resolutions 1368 and 1373 (2001) | Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan
a. No UNSC Authorisation
b. The Invocation of Self-defence in UNSC Resolutions
4. 4. Resolutions 678 (1990), 687 (1991) and 1441 (2002) | Revived Authorisation
a. Implicit Authorisation under Resolution 1441 (2002)
b. Revived Authorisation
c. Condemnation of Operation Iraqi Freedom
5. Conclusion

7. The (In)admissibility of Retroactive UN Security Council Authorisation
1. Introduction
2. Doctrinal Debates and the (In)admissibility of Retroactive Authorisation
3. Alleged UNSC Practice of Retroactive Authorisation
3. 1. Resolutions 788 (1992) and 866 (1993) | Liberia
3. 2. Resolutions 1132 (1997) and 1181 (1998) | Sierra Leone
3. 3. Resolution 1244 (1999) | Kosovo
4. Comparison of Cases and the Inability to Deduce an Established Practice
5. Conclusion

8. Contemporary Developments and Practice Challenging the Need for Prior Explicit Authorisation
1. Introduction
2. Decentralised Collective Security: African Regional and Sub-Regional Security Frameworks
2. 1. The African Union and Article 4(h)
2. 2. ECOWAS and the 1999 Protocol Mechanism
2. 2. 1. Resolution 2337 (2017) | ECOWAS Intervention in The Gambia
2. 3. The Southern African Development Community
3. The Right of Self-Defence and its Intersection with UN Security Council Authorisation
3. 1. Resolution 2249 (2015) | Threats to international peace and security caused by
terrorist acts
3. 2. Resolution 2722 (2024) | Houthi Strikes in the Red Sea
4. Between Ambiguity for Unanimity and Abdication of Responsibility
5. Conclusion

9. Conclusion
1. Introduction
2. Explicit Authorisation as a Well-Established Practice
a. Article 39 Determination
b. Chapter VII (or VIII) Invocation
c. Authorising Language
d. Limitations to Authorisation: Duration and Function
e. Reporting Obligations
f. Authorisation as a Last Resort
3. Exceptions to Prior Explicit Authorisation?
3. 1. The Inadmissibility of Implicit Authorisation
3. 2. The Inadmissibility of Retroactive Authorisation
4. Contemporary Developments and Practice Challenging the Need for UNSC Authorisation?
4. 1. The Continued Need for Authorisation in the African Regional Context
4. 2. The Invocation of Self-Defence in UNSC Resolutions
5. Concluding Observations